PbSO4 batteries are usually charged either by the current-limited method or by the more common and generally simpler voltage-limited method. The voltage-limited charging method is similar to that used for Li+ cells, but high precision isn't as critical. It requires a current-limited voltage source set at a level somewhat higher than the cell's float voltage (about 2.45V).
After a preconditioning operation that ensures that the battery will take a charge, the charger begins the fast charge and continues until it reaches a minimum charging current. (This procedure is similar to that of a Li+ charger). Fast charge is then terminated, and the charger applies a maintenance charge of VFLOAT (usually about 2.2V). PbSO4 cells allow this float-voltage maintenance for indefinite periods (Figure 5).

Figure 5. PbSO4 battery-charging profile.
At higher temperatures, the fast-charge current for PbSO4 batteries should be reduced according to the typical temperature coefficient of 0.3% per degree centigrade. The maximum temperature recommended for fast charging is about 50°C, but maintenance charging can generally proceed above that temperature.

Optional Top-Off Charge (All chemistries)Chargers for all chemistries often include an optional top-off phase. This phase occurs after fast-charge termination and applies a moderate charging current that boosts the battery up to its full-charge level. (The operation is analogous to topping off a car's gas tank after the pump has stopped automatically.) The top-off charge is terminated on reaching a limit with respect to cell voltage, temperature, or time. In some cases, top-off charge can provide a run life of 5% or even 10% above that of a standard fast charge. Extra care is advisable here: the battery is at or near full charge and is therefore subject to damage from overcharging.

Optional Trickle Charge (All chemistries except Li+)Chargers for all chemistries often include an optional trickle-charge phase. This phase compensates for self-discharge in a battery. PbSO4 batteries have the highest rate of self-discharge (a few percent per day), and Li+ cells have the lowest. The Li+ rate is so low that trickle charging is not required or recommended. NiCds, however, can usually accept a C/16 trickle charge indefinitely. For NiMH cells, a safe continuous current is usually around C/50, but trickle charging for NiMH cells is not universally recommended.
Pulsed trickle is a variation in which the charger provides brief pulses of approximately C/8 magnitude, with a low duty cycle that provides a typical average trickle current of C/512. Because pulsed-trickle charging applies to both nickel chemistries and lends itself well to the on/off type of microprocessor (µP) control, it is used almost universally.

Generic Charging SystemBefore looking at specific circuit implementations, designers should become familiar with generic blocks and features (Figure 6). All fast chargers should include these block functions in some form. The bulk power source provides raw dc power, usually from a wall cube or brick. The current and voltage controls regulate current and voltage applied to the battery. For less-expensive chargers, the regulator is usually a power transistor or other linear-pass element that dissipates power as heat. It can also be a buck switching supply that includes a standard freewheeling diode for average efficiency or a synchronous rectifier for highest efficiency.

Figure 6. Generic charging-system block diagram.
The blocks on the right in Figure 6 represent various measurement and control functions. An analog current-control loop limits the maximum current delivered to the battery, and a voltage loop maintains a constant voltage on the cell. (Note that Li+ cells require a high level of precision in the applied charging voltage.)
A charger's current-voltage (I-V) characteristic can be fully programmable, or it can be programmable in current only, with a voltage limit (or vice versa). Cell temperature is always measured, and charge termination can be based either on the level or the slope of this measurement. Chargers also measure charging time, usually as a calculation in the intelligence block.
This block provides intelligence for the system and implements the state machine previously described. It knows how and when to terminate a fast charge. Intelligence is internal to the chip in stand-alone charger ICs. Otherwise, it resides in a host µC, and the other hardware blocks reside in the charger IC. As mentioned previously, this latter architecture is the one preferred today.